"[13], Historians debate whether the Haight letter absolves Young of any complicity. Young was played by Dean Jagger in the 1940 film Brigham Young. [21] Young and Kimball spent the summer following their baptism conducting missionary work in western New York, while Vilate Kimball cared for Young's family. After meeting Joseph Smith, Young joined the Church of Christ in April 9, 1832. Joe . He said his son's injuries were caused by an uncontrolled dog at the Crossroads Dog Park. 20, No. [95][96] Young said in an 1852 speech, "In as much as we believe in the Bible we must believe in slavery. Brigham Young was the second president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, from 1847 until his death in 1877. Will Richardson spoke to KPHO and showed what he called bite marks on his 9-year-old son Matthew's neck and back. The day will come when the seed of Canaan will be redeemed and have all the blessings their brethren enjoy. [56][57], In 1844, Young travelled east again to solicit votes for Joseph Smith in his presidential campaign. Young acknowledged that the doctrine was challenging for many women, but stated its necessity for creating large families, proclaiming: "But the first wife will say, 'It is hard, for I have lived with my husband twenty years, or thirty, and have raised a family of children for him, and it is a great trial to me for him to have more women;' then I say it is time that you gave him up to other women who will bear children. [171], On this topic, Young wrote: "They have not wisdom to act like white men. GILBERT, Ariz. (KPHO/Gray News) - A family in Arizona says their child was attacked by an out-of-control dog at an area park last week. He also married in Nauvoo, but did not have children with: Augusta Adams Cobb, Susannah Snively, Eliza Bowker, Ellen A. Rockwood, and Namah K. J. There is no debate concerning the involvement of individual Mormons from the surrounding communities by scholars. The LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants contains one section from Young that has been canonized as scripture, added in 1876. A young boy has died and his mother has been hospitalized after being attacked by a pack of dogs over the weekend, according to tribal authorities. "Two missionaries of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, serving in the Colombia Cali mission were the victims of a robbery and assault. [170] His manuscript history from January 5, 1852, which was published in the Deseret News, reads: The negro . There he showed a talent for organizing the church's work and maintaining good relationships with Joseph Smith and the other apostles. [24] Lee was executed by firing squad at Mountain Meadows on March 23, 1877. Church historians. Young's father, two brothers, and sister had already moved to Mendon before he did. [29][30] On May 4, 1835, Young and other apostles went on a mission to the east coast, specifically in Pennsylvania and New York. He was replaced as governor the following year by Alfred Cumming. Brigham Young was probably the most oft-married man in 19th-century America. Brigham Young tried to stop the massacre. The Indians we expect will do as they please but you should try and preserve good feelings with them. In 1857, at the time of the Mountain Meadows Massacre, Brigham Young, was serving as President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and as Governor of Utah Territory. Young is the longest-serving president of the LDS Church to date, having served for 29 years. He also helped to convince Hyrum to accept polygamy. On this mission he visited the family of his aunt, Rhoda Howe Richards. [14], By the time Young moved to Mendon in 1828, he had effectively left the Reformed Methodist church and become a Christian seeker, unconvinced that he had found a church possessing the true authority of Jesus Christ. Young supported her and her two children while they lived in their own home in Nauvoo. "[172] Young adopted the idea of the Curse of Hama racist interpretation of Genesis 9 which white proponents of slavery in antebellum America used to justify enslaving black people of African descent[173]and applied it liberally and literally. [23] Young continued to preach in eastern Canada in the spring, and accompanied two Canadian converts to Kirtland in July 1833. This will always be so. He refused to sign a temperance pledge, however, stating that "if I sign the temperance pledge I feel that I am bound, and I wish to do just right, without being bound to do it; I want my liberty. [144], The degree of Young's involvement in the Mountain Meadows massacre, which took place in Washington County in 1857, is disputed. [25] After his return to Kirtland, Young did carpentry, painting and glazing work to earn money. The family moved to Vermont shortly before Brigham Young was born. The ninth of twelve children, Brigham was born into a life full of work. Early Friday morning, they were attacked in the street and one missionary was stabbed in the neck," the statement reads. Never a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Young claimed access to revelation to know God's choice of successor because of his position as an apostle. [4], Young was born on June 1, 1801, in Whitingham, Vermont. The massacre lasted less than five minutes, but when it was. For instance, Joseph Smith was once attacked by an apostate from the Church, William Law, who "attempted to kill Joseph and fired a pistol at him six times at close range. Van Vliet's mission was to inform Young that the US troops then approaching Utah did not intend to attack the Mormons, but intended to establish an army base near Salt Lake City and to request Young's cooperation in procuring supplies for the army. [119][120] Instead, those who committed such sins could partially atone for their sin by sacrificing their life in a way that sheds blood. [69] Some Mormons counterfeited American and Mexican money, and a grand jury indicted Young and other church leaders in 1845. [19] In April 1832, a branch of the church was organized in Mendon; eight of the fifteen families were Youngs. 45-year-old Professor Michael James Clay has been charged with two counts of the second-degree felony of forcible sexual abuse for what he allegedly did to the Brigham Young coed in his charge. His mother died of tuberculosis in June 1815. In the 1995 film The Avenging Angel, the role of Young was played by Charlton Heston. [80] Young's expedition was one of the largest and one of the best organized westward treks, and he made various trips back and forth between the Salt Lake Valley and Winter Quarters to assist other companies in their journeys. He married single women and widows. He founded Salt Lake City and served as the first governor of the Utah Territory. With its claim to show the true inner workings of one of the biggest and most famous polygamous households of all, "Wife No. Brooks has argued the massacre was an overreaction by Mormon militia forces which resulted in the death of settlers and the tarnishing of the Church's reputation. This blog is for preview purposes only and all music downloaded should be deleted within 24 hours. [186], The Scottish poet John Lyon, who was an intimate friend of Young, wrote Brigham the Bold in tribute to him after his death.[187][188]. Brotherton signed an affidavit saying that she had been locked in Smith's office for two days while Young and others tried to convince her to accept polygamy. As she goes back in memory to the old home, she revives the scenes and varied events which filled her childhood days .more Brigham Young served as president until his death on August 29, 1877. The remains of about 40 people were later found and buried, and U.S. Army officer James Henry Carleton had a large cross made from local trees, the transverse beam bearing the engraving, "Vengeance Is Mine, Saith The Lord: I Will Repay" and erected a cairn of rocks at the site. As the competing rail lines approach Utah from the east and west coasts, Young supplies Mormon laborers to both railroad companies and negotiates with the railways to have them make Salt Lake City their meeting point. Recently, Brigham Young has been under attack by many who think his actions were racist, sexist, authoritarian, violent and more. Dates 1940-1970 Creator Mackay, Eleanor White (Person) Language of Materials Materials are in English. After marrying Abigail, John Young settled in Massachusetts. Just four days after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, Young designated the location for the Salt Lake Temple; he presided over its groundbreaking years later on April 6, 1853. [93] These individuals later became known as the Runaway Officials of 1851. . According to William Hayden, Young participated in the Bucksville Forensic and Oratorical Society. DJ Ferguson's family say he was first on the list to receive the transplant at Brigham and Women's Hospital but he is no longer eligible because of his vaccination status, CBS Boston. A bronze marker was placed at the grave site June 10, 1938, by members of the Young Men and Young Women organizations, which he founded. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. These wives bore him children after they moved to Utah. [140], Shortly after the arrival of Young's pioneers, the new Latter-day Saint colonies were incorporated into the United States through the Mexican Cession. "[97] Seven years later in 1859, Young stated in an interview with the New York Tribune that he considered slavery a "divine institution not to be abolished". [74] Young arrived in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, a date now recognized as Pioneer Day in Utah. The mint was closed in 1861 by Alfred Cumming, gubernatorial successor to Young. [138] It was during this period that the controversial doctrine of blood atonement was occasionally preached by Young, though it was repudiated in 1889 and never practiced by members of the church. On many occasions, Young taught that blacks were denied the priesthood because they were "the seed of Cain. Young was also one of the first to subscribe to Union Pacific stock, for the construction of the First transcontinental railroad. [190], Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., talking about his fondness of trees, joked in his The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table: "I call all trees mine that I have put my wedding-ring on, and I have as many tree-wives as Brigham Young has human ones."[191]. Source: Jeffery Ogden Johnson, "Determining and Defining `Wife': The . "[127] In 1863, Young stated: "Shall I tell you the law of God in regard to the African race? He cited as his reason for this that he was ready to relieve himself from the burden of "secular affairs. Alan Willson ran from his home in Worthing, West Sussex, after his son called him to say he was being attacked. They described the Book of Mormon as the "stick of Joseph" mentioned in Ezekiel 37. More of the Story Brigham Young was born in Whitingham, Vermont, on June 1, 1801. [101] Young viewed education as a process of learning how to make the Kingdom of God a reality on earth, and at the core of his "philosophy of education" was the belief that the church had within itself all that was necessary to save mankind materially, spiritually, and intellectually. [37] He became the oldest member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles when David Patten died after the Battle of Crooked River. In the appendix, Twain describes Young as a theocratic "absolute monarch" defying the will of the U.S. government, and alleges using a dubious source that Young had ordered the Mountain Meadows massacre. Brigham Young chosen to lead Mormon Church After Joseph Smith, the founder and prophet of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, or Mormonism, and his brother, Hyrum, were murdered by. [152], Young engaged in a vast assortment of commercial ventures by himself and in partnership with others. Young was involved in temple building throughout his membership in the LDS Church, making it a priority during his time as church president. [42] Young proposed marriage to Martha Brotherton, who was seventeen years old at the time and had recently immigrated from Manchester, England. the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, priesthood on men of black African descent, issued a "selective extermination" order against male Timpanogos, vast arid West between the Rockies and the Sierra Nevada, List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States, "Brigham Young Biography: Facts of Faith", "Brigham Young (18011877) | FamilySearch", 10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0801714, "The Religious and Family Background of Brigham Young", "Setting the Record Straight: Brigham Young's Baptism Date", "The Mantle of the Prophet Joseph Passes to Brother Brigham: One Hundred Twenty-nine Testimonies of a Collective Spiritual Witness", "The Making of a Mormon Myth: The 1844 Transfiguration of Brigham Young", "Utah's new capitol grows from humble beginning; first political sessions were held in council house; fight for statehood", "Open Hand and Mailed Fist: MormonIndian Relations in Utah, 184752", "Looking back at 'Mormon Gold' coins, other historical Utah currencies", "The Beginnings of the University of Utah", "Brigham Young: We Must Believe in Slavery (23 January 1852)", "Education among the Mormons: Brigham Young and the Schools of Utah", "History of the Ladies' Mutual Improvement Association of the Church of Jesus Christ of L.D.S., from November 1869 to June 1910, page 93", "Vol.1, Ch.4: Brigham Young: The Father of Mormon Polygamy", "The People of God Disciplined By TrialsAtonement By the Shedding of BloodOur Heavenly FatherA Privilege Given to All the Married Sisters in Utah", "The Orson PrattBrigham Young Controversies: Conflict Within the Quorums, 1853 to 1868", "Jehovah as the Father: The Development of the Mormon Jehovah Doctrine", "Mormonism and Capital Punishment: A Doctoral Perspective, Past and Present", Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, "Letter from Bruce R. McConkie to Thomas B. McAffee", https://www.deseret.com/2010/6/18/20122138/mormon-church-statement-on-blood-atonement, "Chapter 3: Mormonism's Negro Doctrine: An Historical Overview", "Brigham Young against a then-fashionable scientific form of racism", "Brigham Young and Priesthood Denial to the Blacks: An Alternate View", "The Mormon Church Disavows Its Racist Past But Still Offers No Apology", "The Mormon Reformation of 1856-1857: The Rhetoric and the Reality", "The causes of the Mormon reformation of 1856-57", "Mormonism and Capital Punishment: A Doctrinal Perspective, Past and Present", "Reopening a Mormon Murder Mystery; New Accusations That Brigham Young Himself Ordered an 1857 Massacre of Pioneers", Brigham Young to Isaac C. Haight, September 10, 1857, "Art: Sculpture Statues: Brigham Young", "The Possessive Investment in Rightness: White Supremacy and the Mormon Movement", "People & Events Polygamy and the Church: A History", "Descendants of Brigham Young to Hold Annual Mass Meetings", "Brigham Young's descendants give rocking chair to Mormon church", "Mahonri Young | Smithsonian American Art Museum", "From Sherlock Holmes to Godzilla: The Mormon Image in Comics", "The Necessity of the Saints Living up to the Light Which Has Been Given Them", The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints titles, Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, Presidents of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brigham_Young&oldid=1142007408, American general authorities (LDS Church), American Mormon missionaries in the United Kingdom, Recipients of American presidential pardons, Presidents of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church), Apostles of the Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints), Burials at the Mormon Pioneer Memorial Monument, Latter Day Saint biography Infobox with missing parameters, Pages using infobox Latter Day Saint biography with unsupported parameters, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2021, Harold B. Lee Library-related 19th century articles, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Initial organization of Quorum of the Twelve, This page was last edited on 28 February 2023, at 01:13. [11] After his rest, Haslam picked up the reply from Young and was instructed to return to Cedar City with the letter quickly and not to "spare horseflesh."[11]. Young performed the sealing ordinances for two of Joseph Smith's plural wives in early 1842. Did Brigham Young Approve the Attack? [5] Young received little formal education, but his mother taught him how to read and write. [114], One of the more controversial teachings of Young during the Mormon Reformation was the AdamGod doctrine. [136] At a church meeting on September 21, 1856, Brigham Young stated: We need a reformation in the midst of this people; we need a thorough reform.[137] Large gatherings and meetings during this period were conducted by Young and Grant, and Young played a key role in the circulation of the Mormon Reformation with his emphasis on plural marriage, rebaptism, and passionate preaching and oration. In 1849, Young arranged for a printing press to be brought to the Salt Lake Valley, which was later used to print the Deseret News periodical. [115][116][117] The LDS Church has since repudiated the AdamGod doctrine. Since Young's death, a number of works have published collections of his discourses and sayings. At its prime, the alphabet was used in two Deseret News articles, two elementary readers, and in a translation of the Book of Mormon. "In regard to emigrating trains arriving and passing through our settlements," he wrote in a letter designed to restore calm in Southern Utah, "We must not interfere with them." [45][46] Young campaigned against Bennett's allegations that Joseph Smith practiced "spiritual wifery"; Young knew of Smith's hidden practice of polygamy. Florence Claxton's graphic novel, The Adventures of a Woman in Search of Her Rights (1872), satirizes a would-be emancipated woman whose failure to establish an independent career results in her marriage to Young before she wakes to discover she's been dreaming. In the story line, the Tugwell family, Jason (Ben Cooper), Ellie (Emily Banks), and Mary (Erin Moran), are abandoned by their guide while on a wagon train from Utah to California. The study included a total of 2,097 young patients (<50 years) admitted for a heart attack in two large hospitals. [175], Of Young's fifty-six wives, twenty-one had never been married before; seventeen were widows; six were divorced; six had living husbands and the marital status of six others is unknown. He then stayed for a short time in Dublin, Indiana with his brother Lorenzo before moving to Far West, Missouri in 1838. While there, Young's father remarried to a widow named Hannah Brown, and sent Young off to learn a trade. [183][184][185], Brigham Young appears at the end of the bande dessine Le Fil qui chante, the last in the Lucky Luke series by Ren Goscinny. Young was born shortly after his return. Instead, this able, energetic, earthy man became the absolute ruler and the revered, genuinely loved father figure of all Mormons everywhere. For two years, the monument stood as a memorial to those travelling the Spanish Trail through Mountain Meadow. Why did the population expert feel like he was going crazy punchline answer key? Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston says its policy won't allow DJ Ferguson to have the surgery since not being vaccinated seriously hurts its chances for success and his long-term outlook. [145] Leonard J. Arrington reports that Young received a rider at his office on the day of the massacre, and that when he learned of the contemplated attack by members of the church in Parowan and Cedar City, he sent back a letter directing that the Fancher party be allowed to pass through the territory unmolested. By 1870, it had all but disappeared from use.[108]. [81], After three years of leading the church as the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, Young reorganized a new First Presidency and was sustained as the second president of the church on December 27, 1847 at Winter Quarters. James H. Haslam, interview by S. A. Kenner, reported by Josiah Rogerson, 4 December 1884, typescript, 11, in Josiah Rogerson, Transcripts and Notes of John D. Lee Trials, LDS Church Archives. 3 (Fall 1987), pp. Young's message of reply to Haight, dated September 10, 1857, read: In regard to emigration trains passing through our settlements, we must not interfere with them until they are first notified to keep away. should serve the seed of Abraham; he should not be a ruler, nor vote for men to rule over me nor my brethren. Conditions Governing Access Open for public research. [142] Buchanan accepted the reports of the Runaway Officials without any further investigation, and the new non-sectarian governor was appointed and sent to the new territory accompanied by 2,500 soldiers. Only at the end, did Brigham Young sacrifice John D. Lee, when it became obvious that the Nation would have justice for the atrocity. [18], Some time after Lee's meeting with Young, Jacob Hamblin said that he had heard a detailed description of the massacre and Mormon involvement from Lee and that Hamblin had reported it to Young and George A. Smith soon after the massacre. As to why he'll suffer another one: it could be from having to see Nate, who he took under his wing, turn into his enemy, or it could be from having his own son come see him, reminding him of his failed marriage. During the 30 years between the Mormons' arrival in Utah in 1847 and [his death in] 1877, Young directed the founding of 350 towns in the Southwest. The practice of plural marriage brought first heavy persecution and then legislation against the Saints. According to Young, the matter was beyond his personal control, and was divinely determined rather than historically or personally as many assumed. Lyon, T. Edgar (1989). . "[113] Young believed that sexual desire was given by God to ensure the perpetuation of humankind, and believed sex should be confined to marriage. He also provisioned the building of the Endowment House, a "temporary temple" which began to be used in 1855 to provide temple ordinances to church members while the Salt Lake Temple was under construction. John Lyon: the life of a pioneer poet. A century after Young's death, historian Rodman W. Paul wrote,[161]. He credited Young's leadership with helping to settle much of the American West:[161]. He also authorized the construction of the Utah Central railroad line, which connected Salt Lake City to the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad. Young negotiated with Stephen A. Douglas and agreed to lead church members out of Nauvoo in the spring in exchange for peace. [102], On October 16, 1875, Young deeded buildings and land in Provo, Utah to a board of trustees for establishing an institution of learning, ostensibly as part of the University of Deseret. In Mendon, Young first became acquainted with Heber C. Kimball, an early member of the LDS Church. No. [78] On August 7, Brigham suggested that the members of the camp be re-baptized to signify a re-dedication to their beliefs and covenants. Mrs. Lawton was the second of the ten Alexander children, of whom the sixth was the late Gen. Edward Porter Alexander, chief of artillery, Longstreet's Corps, C. S. A., president . If only they wanted it. Brigham Young ( / brm /; June 1, 1801 - August 29, 1877) was an American leader in the Latter Day Saint movement and a settler of the Western United States. The proclamation is very clear: . "[104] The school broke off from the University of Deseret and became Brigham Young Academy in 1876 under the leadership of Karl G. Maeser,[104] and was the precursor to Brigham Young University. If the white man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain, the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. BYU, which is owned by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, forbids sexual activity among members of the student body, much less between a . After Miriam died of consumption, Vilate continued to care for Brigham's children while he, Heber, and Joseph Young travelled to visit Joseph Smith in Kirtland, Ohio. He was initially skeptical on whether or not the school's administration would allow the speech but received a message of encouragement from the administrator who reviewed his speech, telling him it was great and to . FactSnippet No. Brigham Young had six sisters and four brothers. Mary Ann, who was pregnant at the time, had provided for Young's two daughters and the children of her brother Solomon Angell and their friend Lorenzo Booth while Young was away with Zion's Camp. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Brigham Young University student Matt Easton came out as gay during his convocation speech on April 26, 2019. A church conference held in Iowa sustained Young and his First Presidency on December 27, 1847. In the early 1850s, he expressed some support for the antislavery "free soil" position in American politics,[164] and in January 1852, he declared in a speech that "no property can or should be recognized as existing in slaves", suggesting opposition to the existence of slavery. [135] The Mormon Reformation called for a spiritual reawakening among members of the church, and took place largely in the Utah Territory. Thereby the Mormons became the most important single agency in colonizing that vast arid West between the Rockies and the Sierra Nevada. Dates. Three of the Aposoles did not follow Brigham Young. Over the course of his nearly 40 years teaching at Brigham Young, Mr. Woodworth has served as an adviser for unofficial student beard clubs on several occasions. Buchanan later pardoned Young. What are the advantages and disadvantages of video capture hardware? Only at the end, did Brigham Young sacrifice John D. Lee, when it became obvious that the Nation would have justice for the atrocity. The religion had undergone a period of intense conflict with non-Mormons in the American midwest, and faithful Mormons made solemn oaths to pray for vengeance upon those who killed the "prophets" including founder Joseph Smith, and more recently apostle Parley P. Pratt, who was murdered in April 1857 while traveling as a missionary in Arkansas. Though he himself was hundreds of miles away, the literal hour struck for Brigham Young at Carthage Jail precisely at "5 o'clock, 16 minutes, and 26 seconds" on the afternoon of June 27, 1844. [12] In 1828, the family moved briefly to Oswego, New York on the shore of Lake Ontario, and in 1828 to Mendon, New York. [46] Eight of Young's plural marriages in Nauvoo were to Joseph Smith's widows. Young informed Van Vliet that he was skeptical that the army's intentions were peaceful and that the Mormons intended to resist occupation. When Amelia became part of the Young family in January 1863, she did not immediately move in with her sister-wives. Then figure out what the total cost of the trip would be.? By the summer of 1877, Young's health was in decline, but he continued to play an active role in the Mormon church up until the end. Later, as Young is generally understood to have taught, Adam returned to the earth to become the biological father of Jesus. Brigham Young and the Mountain Meadows Massacre, Young's belated message to Isaac C. Haight, acting commander of the Iron County Brigade. History of Brigham Young, entry dated Jan. 5, 1852, Church Historians Office Records Collection, LDS Church Archives (quoted in Ricks, A Peculiar Place, 114). During his time as church president, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, west from Nauvoo, Illinois, to the Salt Lake Valley. The Constitution of Deseret is silent upon this, we meant it should be so. Was brigham young stabbed by a son named Phineas? Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University. [54][55] In March 1844, Brigham Young was an inaugural member of the Council of Fifty, which later organized the Mormon exodus from Nauvoo. Was not referring to his death, just the stabbing. Young established a gold mint in 1849 and called for the minting of coins using gold dust which had been accumulated from travelers during the Gold Rush. According to Wilford Woodruff, in 1861 Young brought an entourage to Mountain Meadows and suggested that the monument instead read "Vengeance is mine and I have taken a little". Under his direction, the Mormons built roads and bridges, forts, irrigation projects; established public welfare; organized a militia; issued a "selective extermination" order against male Timpanogos[88] and after a series of wars eventually made peace with the Native Americans. Members out of Nauvoo in the spring in exchange for peace to earn money sister had moved. Member of the LDS Church 's doctrine and Covenants contains one section from that., & quot ; Determining and Defining ` Wife & # x27 ; s were. Read and write Douglas and agreed to lead Church members out of in. [ 117 ] the LDS Church maintaining good relationships with Joseph Smith in his campaign. Debate concerning the involvement of individual Mormons from the surrounding communities by scholars referring to his in. During his time as Church president her sister-wives of video capture hardware mint was closed in 1861 by Alfred.! 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